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-- P l a n t p r o d u c t s --
click on the question number for the answer |
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| Q 1. | ||
| What local seaweeds are used in the manufacture of alginin (agar) and where are they found? |
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| Q 2. | ||
| Is it true that the Japanese eat seaweed? |
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| Q 3. | ||
| What is the use of "Irish Moss"? |
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| Q 4. | ||
| Is it true that seaweed-fed cows will increase their butterfat output? |
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| Q 5. | ||
| Is it true that algae is being considered as a source of food supply? |
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| Q 6. | ||
| In a recent magazine article I read where commercial seaweed fertilizer production offers an excellent opportunity for new small businesses. Is this true in Florida? |
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| Q 7. | ||
| While I was vacationing in Canada on the Atlantic Coast, I watched some men gathering sea weed. They told me that they regularly sold this sea weed. Could you tell me what it would be good for? |
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| Q 8. | ||
| Are any Florida seaweeds edible? |
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| Q 9. | ||
| I am interested in the possibility of eating seaweed and would like to know something about it. |
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| Q 10. | ||
| What are some of the methods used to harvest seaweeds? |
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| Q 11. | ||
| When I was in the Orient during World War II, I grew fond of a sauce used at all the restaurants. I believe that this sauce is called noachman and is prepared from seaweeds. Can you tell me whether or not this is so? What are its ingredients? |
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| Q 12. | ||
| I have read much about the use of sea kelp as fertilizer, and would like to know if it is as useful as is commonly believed. |
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| Q 13. | ||
| I know that the Japanese use seaweeds as a food. Is there any seaweed used for food in this hemisphere? |
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| Q 14. | ||
| In the area around our summer home, there is a great abundance of eel grass. Is it of any use commercially? |
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| Q 15. | ||
| Is it always necessary to wash seaweed after gathering to remove the salt, before using it for fertilizer? If the seaweed is not washed, will it harm the soil? |
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| Q 16. | ||
| I have been taking vitamins, one of the ingredients of which is kelp. I have recently read that the government dumps radiation wastes in the Pacific Ocean and I have felt that the kelp leaves could become contaminated. Could you enlighten me on this? |
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| Q 17. | ||
| What mineral value is there in seaweed? Does it have any commercial market value? |
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| Q 18. | ||
| We know that the Japanese use seaweed as food. Is any seaweed used for food in North America? |
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| Q 19. | ||
| Please send me what information you have on the uses of seaweed. |
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| Q 20. | ||
| Can you tell me how agar is made from giant kelp, Nereocystis? |
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| Q 21. | ||
| Are there any edible seaweeds in Florida? |
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| Q 22. | ||
| I have heard that blue-green algae might increase the yield of fish from Philippine milkfish ponds. Do these algae really have potential in mariculture? |
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| Q 23. | ||
| I have been told that sargassum covers the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean. Are there any commercial uses of this resource of seaweed? |
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| Q 24. | ||
| Is Spirulina, an alga, digestible as food for humans? If so, how nutritious is it? |
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| Q 25. | ||
| What is the value of Chlorella for human consumption? |
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| Q 26. | ||
| Our parrots and mynahs seem to do better when they are fed kelp, in addition to their regular feed. Other than iodine, what is the nutritional value of kelp? |
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| Q 27. | ||
| Are the cigar-shaped, red-mangrove seedlings that commonly wash up on Florida beaches edible? |
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| Q&A 1. | What local seaweeds are used in the manufacture of alginin (agar) and where are they found? |
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| These are the red-brown algae Gracilaria foliifera and G. blogettii, which occur in the Indian River along Florida's east coast from Stuart north to Titusville. In addition, G. foliifera is abundant in Tampa Bay on the Gulf coast, and G. blogettii occurs in Apalachicola Bay in northwest Florida. Commercial processing of these plants is not being carried out at present but they represent a possible field for profitable exploitation. After the agar is extracted from the seaweed by boiling with chemicals under pressure, it is dried, ground to a bacteriological cultures and as a smoothing agent for ice cream. |
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| Q&A 2. | Is it true that the Japanese eat seaweed? |
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| Yes, the Japanese eat a brown seaweed which they call "kombu" when it is prepared for food. The seaweed is first prepared by boiling in fresh water and drying on racks in the sun. When thoroughly dry, strips are pressed together in a hard mass, which is then shredded with a hand plane. Seaweed is also eaten to a limited extent on this continent, a variety called "dulse" having a limited market, particularly on the eastern seaboard. |
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| Q&A 3. | What is the use of "Irish Moss"? |
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| "Irish Moss" is the trade name for the seaweed, Chondrus crispus, which is used commercially in the manufacture of carageenin. Carageenin is used in the making of prepared foods, drugs, and cosmetics, since it has remarkable thickening, suspending, emulsifying, gelling, and stabilizing powers. At present its most important use is as a stabilizer in chocolate milk. It is also used in prepared cheeses, ice cream toppings, salsa dressing, syrups, puddings, candies, etc. Irish moss was originally imported from Europe, but in 1835 was discovered in abundance along the rocky shores of Massachusetts. It is found in quantity along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Newfoundland. |
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| Q&A 4. | Is it true that seaweed-fed cows will increase their butterfat output? |
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| Yes. The addition of copper sulfate to the diet of milk-producing cows in western Scotland has been experimentally shown to increase their butterfat production in one to six days. The dried seaweed, Ascophyllum nodosum, which is rich in copper was then added in milled form to the feed of 17 herds of cattle from the same area. Statistics following the experiment showed that the seaweed fed to the cows had a favorable effect on their butterfat production, although this was not great in most cases. |
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| Q&A 5. | Is it true that algae is being considered as a source of food supply? Miami, Florida |
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| Yes, the one-cell marine plant Chlorella is being experimentally cultivated as food for human consumption. Because this plant uses a higher percentage of the solar energy falling on it than does our best crop plants, it catches more sunlight by covering all of the growing area throughout the year as compared to farm crops which cover only part of the ground and generally for only part of the year. It produces a minimum of inedible material and a maximum of food substance such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats. |
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| Q&A 6. | In a recent magazine article I read where commercial seaweed fertilizer production offers an excellent opportunity for new small businesses. Is this true in Florida? Miami, Florida |
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| Yes, the production of seaweed by -products might prove profitable in Florida. In Florida's large area of shallow water there is an abundant and varied population of marine plants. There are over 400 species of marine plants that have been reported and with a more intensive study many more will be brought to light. Of these, only five belong with the flowering plants, the remainder are classed with simple, primitive plants called algae. About a dozen of these algae may be commercially useful for fertilizer, stockfeed, or the production of two important materials, algar and algin. Almost any of the seaweeds which wash up on the beach in quantity can be gathered and used for fertilizer. The most abundant of these on the east of Florida are the two floating species of gulf-weed, Sargassum natans and Sargassum fluitans. These are easily recognized by their light to dark brown color and numerous berry-like floats. Sea grasses and turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) and manatee grass (Cymodocea manatorum) are almost worthless for fertilizer. Seaweeds are excellent sources of the major fertilizer elements, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus as well as the many elements required in minute quantities for normal plant and animal growth. When washed with freshwater to remove the surface salt and then allowed to decompose in the soil, these essential minerals are gradually made available to the growing plants. Seaweed fertilizer is superior to many chemical fertilizer because its high proportion of organic material aids in retaining water and minerals in the upper level of the soil where plant roots can absorb them. Another advantage of seaweed is that it lacks the undesirable weed seeds and fungus spores found in manure. Although seaweed has been used for fertilizer with great success by the Dade County Park Development and many individual growers, the absence of a commercial seaweed fertilizer industry probably can be explained by the practical difficulties of deterioration if marketed fresh, or labor costs to dry and grind it so that it could be marketed like other fertilizer. |
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| Q&A 7. | While I was vacationing in Canada on the Atlantic Coast, I watched some men gathering sea weed. They told me that they regularly sold this sea weed. Could you tell me what it would be good for? West Palm Beach, Florida |
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| What you saw might well have been part of the Irish Moss industry. There are many sea weeds which find utility in our daily lives here and abroad. Irish moss, a multi-use sea weed found in abundance on parts of the Canadian Atlantic Coast, is used in the preparation of some foods, and acts as a "stabilizer". It is used in ice cream to prevent the formation of large ice crystals during freezing, thus producing the smooth mixture of creamy consistency. It is used as a jellying agent in milk puddings, and as a suspending agent in such drinks as chocolate milk. It is also used in making doughnuts, cake icings, and marshmallows. Irish moss is found in the ocean near low tide level to a depth of about 15 feet. Workers gather the moss by using long handled rakes. An individual can collect as much as 1000 pounds of Irish moss in a single day. The moss is usually dried on wooden racks placed in the sunlight which improves the quality and removes impurities. After drying, the moss is compressed into 100 lb. bales or packed in sacks for shipment. |
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| Q&A 8. | Are any Florida seaweeds edible? Miami, Florida |
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| None of the Florida seaweeds are regularly used as human food, although similar forms are so used in Europe and the Orient. An edible product, agar, can be extracted from the red seaweed, Gracilaria, which grows in shallow bays along both Florida coasts. |
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| Q&A 9. | I am interested in the possibility of eating seaweed and would like to know something about it. Ft. Pierce, Florida |
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| Seaweeds, of which there are many species, compare favorably with land plants as sources of dietary constituents. They are, however, less digestible and less palatable than are the common vegetables, at least to the western races. To the Japanese the nori (Porphyra) is a stand-by in the diet. One popular preparation is "rolled rice balls", in which vinegared rice, vegetables, and mashed prawns or eggs are rolled in a sheet of nori which is then sliced into servings. Nori is also eaten by cutting the sheets into small squares and warming them over a fire. One side is then dipped on a flavored soy sauce and a portion of steaming rice placed in it. Very little seaweed, as such, is eaten in the United States. Dulse, the common name for the dried seaweed Rhodymenia, is available in cellophane packages in the large cities of the northeastern United States and elsewhere. In general, seaweeds are processed for their agar, algin and carrageenin content and these serve as stabilizers, emulsifiers, thickeners, vehicles or "body" producers and gelling agents. The food industry, particularly bakery, candy and cheese industries use large quantities of seaweed derivatives. Agar is a therapeutic agent for constipation. In general the seaweeds are a poor source of energy because a large portion of the calories they contain are in an indigestible form, as complex carbohydrates. Red algae of the genus Porphyra, from which nori or laver is prepared, was found to contain up to 140 mg. of vitamin C and over 500 Sherman units of vitamin B per 100 gm. of fresh weight, the highest of any seaweeds tested. In Florida the Gracillaria folufera of the Indian River in the vicinity of Jensen and northward was processed in 1945 by a small plant as Jensen Beach. Large supplies were found at Sebastian in 1948, but the industry has since discontinued operations in Florida. |
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| Q&A 10. | What are some of the methods used to harvest seaweeds? Newark, New Jersey |
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| Many different methods are employed in collecting the various seaweeds, each species presenting specific problems. Although few seaweeds are cultivated for harvest this is true for species of Porphyra in Japan. The Japanese provide surface attachment for the Porphyra spores. The method is to place bamboo brush or rope nets tied to stakes in the water about mid-September. They harvest this crop as growth permit, from November through April. Gloiopeltis furcata, a red alga also found in Japan, grows on rocks in shallow water. Collection is either by long handled rakes, or divers gather the seaweed by hand. Along the North Atlantic shores gathering of the Irish moss, Chondrus crispus is also accomplished on the flood tide. From their boats they manipulate special rakes to wedge bunches of moss between the tires and tear the plants from the rocks. In certain countries of Europe the fucoids are systematically harvested twice a year. They are found above the low tide marks which makes cutting easier than for the lamenaria which grow at greater depth. Here long handled sickles and reaping hooks are employed with the problem of finding more efficient methods of collection rendered difficult where the sea-bed is irregular. However, along the California coast the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifern is harvested by means of underwater mowing machines and chain conveyors which carry the seaweed onto a barge. Only the tips of the plants are harvested, and these soon grow back again. In North Carolina and Florida, where we formally had a seaweed industry, collecting is simpler. The commercial species accumulate in masses on shallow flats where they may be raked into a skiff at low tide. Where the currents are strong and deeper waters prevent this method of collection, a net may be set to accomplish the task. The seaweed is then removed before each change of tide. These and other likely methods employing grapples, tubes and pumps, and other devices are being used or considered for this job. |
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| Q&A 11. | When I was in the Orient during World War II, I grew fond of a sauce used at all the restaurants. I believe that this sauce is called noachman and is prepared from seaweeds. Can you tell me whether or not this is so? What are its ingredients? Jacksonville, Florida |
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| Noachman is a peculiar sauce prepared rather widely throughout the Orient and used as a seasoning, much as many Americans use Worcestershire sauce. It is made from mixed seaweeds which are boiled to a jelly and mixed with a concentrated garlic sauce. The mixture is then emulsified with fish oil and water. This sauce does not usually appeal to Occidental palates. |
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| Q&A 12. | I have read much about the use of sea kelp as fertilizer, and would like to know if it is as useful as is commonly believed. Modesto, California |
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| Seaweed has been used as a primitive form of fertilizer along the more isolated coasts of Ireland, Scotland, and France for a long time. The kelp is washed free of salt and piled in heaps on the fields. When rotted down it is plowed into the soil. Rotted kelp has a higher proportion of potassium salts than barnyard manure, about the same proportion of nitrogen, but less phosphorus. It is said to be particularly good for root crops. |
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| Q&A 13. | I know that the Japanese use seaweeds as a food. Is there any seaweed used for food in this hemisphere? Minneapolis, Minnesota |
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| Most people in the United States eat seaweed products every day. Seaweed derivatives are used as a stabilizer for foods containing oil in order to keep the oil from settling out. Examples are: ice cream, chocolate milk, and some puddings. They are also used in hand lotion, shaving cream, and in other items which are sold in the aerosol type can. Some people use seaweeds as a food supplement. |
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| Q&A 14. | In the area around our summer home, there is a great abundance of eel grass. Is it of any use commercially? Stoughton, Massachusetts |
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| Yes. In Shelburne County, on the south shore of Nova Scotia, there is a factory in which home insulation is manufactured from eel grass. This grass, a form of seaweed, is common along the coast of North America and very plentiful in south western Nova Scotia. It grows offshore, breaks off, and floats shoreward. During the summer months, men gather it up in dories and bring it ashore to dry in the open fields. Eel grass was used for insulation in Europe many centuries ago, and old homes in New England and in the Maritime Provinces were insulated with this material. Natural qualities of eel grass which make it suitable for use as insulation are that it will not burn or rot, since it contains silica, salt, and iodine, and each blade of the grayish-black also make eel grass a good sound-deadener. |
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| Q&A 15. | Is it always necessary to wash seaweed after gathering to remove the salt, before using it for fertilizer? If the seaweed is not washed, will it harm the soil? Long Island, New York |
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| The need to wash seaweed to remove salt before using it in the garden depends very much upon local conditions. For example, Seaweed which has remained on the beach in the spray zone for a long time may be heavily salt encrusted. It also depends on the nature of the garden. Young plants, some more than others, are sensitive to salt. Therefore, the recommendation to wash seaweed may be considered a precautionary measure rather than an absolute necessity. |
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| Q&A 16. | I have been taking vitamins, one of the ingredients of which is kelp. I have recently read that the government dumps radiation wastes in the Pacific Ocean and I have felt that the kelp leaves could become contaminated. Could you enlighten me on this? Miami, Florida |
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| Everywhere on earth, in rocks, plants and animals, radioactive material is found. In addition, cosmic radiation is also present everywhere. Most of the water on earth contains a comparably small amount of radionuclides. The radioactive wastes added to the ocean increase the radioactivity only when added in solution, but nearly all atomic waste disposal is added in shielded containers. A few rivers, the water of which is used as a cooling medium in reactors, transport radionuclides to the ocean. When these waters are mixed into the total volume of ocean waters, the natural radioactivity is augmented by an unmeasurably small amount. Difficulties might be encountered in the river and in the neighborhood of the river mouth before complete mixing has been achieved. At present, there is small risk that kelp is contaminated and continuous research and control will guarantee that all safety measures are taken. |
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| Q&A 17. | What mineral value is there in seaweed? Does it have any commercial market value? St. Louis, Missouri |
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| Most of the seaweeds are excellent sources of the major fertilizer elements-nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus-as well as the many elements required in minute quantities for normal plant and animal growth. Seaweed's high proportion of organic matter makes it superior to many chemical fertilizers, in fact, because it can aid in retaining water and minerals in the upper levels of the soil where plant roots can absorb them. The only Florida seaweed of real value as a fertilizer is Gulfweed, or Sargassum, which is found washed up on east coast beaches. The large kelps which are so abundant in many places along the Pacific coast have a much higher market value, for they are processed commercially for algins and kelp meal and used in the manufacture of livestock and poultry feeds, vitamins, pharmaceuticals and health foods. Quite a bit of information on the commercial market for seaweed is available through The Seaweed Corporation, 63 David Street, New Bedford, Massachusetts. |
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| Q&A 18. | We know that the Japanese use seaweed as food. Is any seaweed used for food in North America? New Haven, Connecticut |
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| Seaweed products are used every day by millions of people in the United States. Seaweed derivatives are used as stabilizers in foods containing oils to keep the oil from settling out. Such foods are ice cream, chocolate milk and some puddings. Some people also use seaweeds as a food supplement. |
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| Q&A 19. | Please send me what information you have on the uses of seaweed. Dearborn, Michigan |
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| Seaweed has long been used as an industrial source of iodine, but it is rich in other useful compounds, most of which fall into the gum, gelatin or emulsifier categories. Algin, an extract of brown seaweed, is used in paper sizing, textile printing, ceramic binding, cosmetics, paints, explosives and drugs. Carrageenin, from some red seaweeds, is used to stabilize suspensions such as frozen custard, chocolate milk and paint. Agar, extracted from other red seaweeds, is used as a culture medium by microbiologists. In addition, seaweed is also employed as a fertilizer and animal feed. Many nationalities relish various seaweeds as delicacies. The Chinese use it to flavor soup, rice and fish. Icelanders eat a salad made of coarse red seaweed, and the Japanese eat many varieties, both fresh and dried. |
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| Q&A 20. | Can you tell me how agar is made from giant kelp, Nereocystis? Saratoga, California |
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| Agar is not derived from kelp. It is prepared from various species of red algae. The principal species used in the agar industry in California is Gelidium cartilagineum. After a sufficient quantity of red algae has been collected by divers, it is soaked for 12 to 14 hours. Then, it is pressure cooked three times for 6 hours at 15 pounds per square inch. The extract is filtered, then allowed to gel for 24 hours in tubes. This gel is chopped up and frozen for two days; then it is thawed and dewatered to remove soluble impurities. The flakes will contain about 90-percent moisture and should be dried until only 35 percent of the moisture remains. Next, the flakes are bleached in a 1-percent sodium-hypochlorite solution. The excess bleaching reagent is removed with sodium sulfite and repeated washings; then the agar is dried until about 20-percent moisture remains. The finished product is canned and sold to food, pharmaceutical, and other industries. Further information is found in The Encyclopedia of Marine Resources edited by Frank E. Firth (Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1969), Seaweeds and Their Uses by V. J. Chapman (Methuen and Company, Second Edition, 1950), and Marine Algae by Levring, Hoppe, and Schmid (Cram, deGruyter and Company, Hamburg, 1969). |
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| Q&A 21. | Are there any edible seaweeds in Florida? Chicago, Illinois |
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| One Florida species that is known to be edible is the broad-leafed green alga, Ulva lactuca. This light-green, soft alga is occasionally found between or immediately below the tidal marks, attached to rocks or some other hard substrate. It can be eaten raw, as in salads. Further information about edible algae is given in The Sea Vegetable Book: Foraging and Cooking Seaweed by Judith Cooper Madlener (Crown Publishers, New York, 1977). |
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| Q&A 22. | I have heard that blue-green algae might increase the yield of fish from Philippine milkfish ponds. Do these algae really have potential in mariculture? Stockton, California |
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| Blue-green algae, which are considered by some not to be true algae but instead more closely related to bacteria, are considered promising candidates for future mariculture operations. According to Dr. Akira Mitsui of the University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, this is due to their fast growth rate, their lack of a cell wall which makes them easy to digest, and their nutritional qualities-some of them are 60 percent protein and contain almost all essential amino acids. Furthermore, some species of blue-green algae have the ability to utilize or fix atmospheric nitrogen, eliminating the need for costly nitrogenous fertilizers. This nitrogen-fixing capability allows them to outcompete other types of algae that might contaminate their culture. Researchers in Mitsui's laboratory have isolated hundreds of different types of blur-green algae and are testing their nutritional value by feeding them to various animals. Results indicate that the best type of blue-green algae to feed to an animal depends greatly on the particular species of animal. Certain types brought about faster growth in rotifers than traditional algal feeds, while other types caused brine shrimp to grow faster. (Rotifers and brine shrimp are two important animals used in the larval grow-out of many fish and shrimp.) In feeding experiments of the blue-green algae with a fish, small specimens of a saltwater Tilapia hybrid tripled in size in just seven days. Tests revealed that the majority of blue-green algae in Mitsui's collection were not toxic to test animals. The University of Miami researchers currently are determining the best means of feeding the blue-green algae that are most suited for mariculture. Work is also under way to develop simple but efficient means of growing them to make their culture commercially feasible. |
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| Q&A 23. | I have been told that sargassum covers the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean. Are there any commercial uses of this resource of seaweed? Highland Park, Illinois |
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| Sargassum is used as food, particularly by the Japanese and Koreans, and as fertilizer. In fact, extracts from this seaweed have proven successful in increasing yields in agriculture. Other commercial possibilities include chemical extraction of iodine, potassium, iron, and algin, and use of the seaweed as animal feed. In addition, broad-spectrum antibiotics and antifouling chemicals have been isolated from sargassum on an experimental basis. There may be as much as 11 million tons of sargassum spread over the Sargasso Sea, but its low concentration of only 2 to 5.5 tons of weed per square mile poses a major problem for commercial utilization. Yet, even with the high energy costs involved in harvesting this resource, Aqua-10 Corporation, Beaufort, North Carolina is actively doing so and processing it for use as a liquid fertilizer supplement. |
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| Q&A 24. | Is Spirulina, an alga, digestible as food for humans? If so, how nutritious is it? St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands |
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| Spirulina is indeed digestible as food for humans and is quite nutritious. This blue-green alga has a large, easily harvestable growth form. There are over 35 different types, originally isolated from salt lakes in Africa, South America, and Mexico. Spirulina has been eaten by people in Chad and Mexico for centuries. As a percent of dry weight, Spirulina is 65- to 70- percent protein, 12.4- percent carbohydrate, and 7.3-percent fats. Of course, these percentages will vary with growth conditions. The percent protein is approximately twice that of soybeans. Spirulina has about 600 calories per 100 grams dry weight, and contains vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, and E. It is nontoxic, and is easy to digest and absorb. It is currently popular as a protein supplement in health food stores and as a part of animal and fish feeds. While the amount of protein in Spirulina is high, it is not a complete protein source, since it is low in methionine and several other amino acids. Further information is available in Spirulina: Food for a Hungry World by H. Nakamura |
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| Q&A 25. | What is the value of Chlorella for human consumption? Berkley, California |
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| Chlorella is a single-celled green alga that is high in protein and vitamins. For many years it was considered an ideal candidate for human consumption because of its rapid growth rate in an easily maintained culture of simple inorganic nutrients. Chlorella, however, has a relatively thick cell wall that makes it difficult to digest. This problem, in conjunction with the difficulties of harvesting the numerous but very small single cells, has reduced interest in human consumption of Chlorella. |
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| Q&A 26. | Our parrots and mynahs seem to do better when they are fed kelp, in addition to their regular feed. Other than iodine, what is the nutritional value of kelp? Pomona, California |
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| In addition to iodine, seaweeds in general (including kelps) are high in other minerals, vitamins, and trace elements. The giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), found in waters off California, is high in vitamins A and E and contains significant amounts of vitamins B and D. Compared to some other seaweeds, the kelps are lower in protein and higher in carbohydrates. Seaweeds have been used in animal fodders and fertilizers for many years. |
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| Q&A 27. | Are the cigar-shaped, red-mangrove seedlings that commonly wash up on Florida beaches edible? Boynton Beach, Florida |
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| In an emergency, the inner part of the bitter, greenish sprout of the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) may be eaten, according to Wild Plants for Survival in South Florida (Fairchild Tropical Gardens, Miami, Florida, fifth edition, 1982). The leaves of the red mangrove may also be used to make a tea. However, author Julia F. Morton warns against the use of these materials in any but emergency situations, since the tannins in them have been shown to be carcinogenic. |
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Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science Library
University of Miami, FL USA 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 Phone: 305 421 4060 Fax: 305 421 9306 E-mail: libcirc@rsmas.miami.edu |
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